The “Peking Man”: Evolution beyond the Toronto Legacy

85 years ago, a group of hominid fossils, including 5 late-mysteriously-missing skulls, were named the “Peking Man” by the Toronto anthropologist Davidson Black. Since the 1920s, the Peking Man has been included in the history of anthropology and archaeology, and has been mentioned throughout numerous classrooms as part of the theories associated with the origins of human beings.  When I started digging at the Zhoukoudian site along with colleagues and students from the Chinese Academy of Sciences on a hot summer day in 2009, the Toronto connection to the Peking Man would once again be reinstated. So after nearly a century, what do we know about the Peking Man?

In the 1920s - 1930s the excavation of the cave of the Peking Man centred around uncovering remains of Homo erectus including fossils, animal bones, and stone tools. Based on Davidson Black’s research and subsequent studies, the Peking Man was proudly presented to the World as a missing link of human evolution according to Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Growing up in China, I learnt in elementary school a few decades ago that all Chinese peoples were descendants of the Peking Man. But, twenty years ago, the startling news was uncovered, through extensive DNA studies, that we had nothing to with the Peking Man, we were descendants of an African woman who led a bunch of her sons and daughters, carrying the gene of Homo sapiens sapiens (modern human),  to East Asia nearly 50,000 years ago. These newcomers wiped out the sons and daughters of the Peking Man, making the latter extinct. The people of the Peking Man, whom inhabited the area around today’s Beijing, probably started their lives some 700,000 thousand years ago, and had come to a dramatic end!!!

If this theory is true, then we should be able to find evidence of cultural materials that were brought in by the Africans or West-incomers.  But, we have not found any sudden changes or interruptions in cultural materials in any of the archaeological sites in China during that time span. We did not find traces of ‘faber’ or tool-workers, no artefacts were uncovered that were used to make any kind of tools nor were there any evidence of patterns of livings. We also couldn’t find any tool making kits that were similar to those known to have once prevailed in the west side of the Old World.  What is also fascinating is that modern East Asians have features that physically resemble those of the Peking Man.  What we do know is that it is pretty much an acceptable notion that modern humans originated in East Africa and eventually migrated out of Africa. It is impossible, or physically irrational, that modern humans had multiple-origins in different places independently. So what was going on here in East Asia during some 100,000 – 50,000 years ago?

Our guess is that the Peking Man and the African modern human species crossbred during their encounters in the area of today’s China. Physically, gene exchanges occurred eventually leading to the mutation of mitochondrial DNA that was inherited through the female. However, in order to prove this, we need more genetic studies. But at least, recent research in Central Asian have indicated that interbreeding between two Homo species, Neanderthal and unknown Asian Archaic Homo sapiens, did happen.  This theory, allegedly called “continuity with hybridization” for the East Asian origin of modern humans, needs further testing. Specimens coming out of the re-excavations at the Zhoukoudian site may help us with further testing, or produce comparative research toward understanding the life and habits of the Peking Man. The question we have to ask is how smart was the Peking Man and what were his abilities to cope with the invasions of the Africans? Today some scholars insist that Peking Man could not even produce and/or control fire, so how could they handle the pressure or influence of modern African humans?

During our excavation of the Peking Man site last year the site revealed startling evidence of fire floors, something that would unlikely be featured as a natural fire dump; rather this represented the possibility of intentional management of fire. Once this is established, and through further scientific testing, the story of the Peking Man will be re-told again. 

Dr. Chen Shen examined the only remaining piece of Peking Man skull fossil specimen in 2010 (the other was lost during the WWII), at the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Science. The IVPP is responsible for the multi-year national project of re-excavation at the Peking Man site. 

Dr. Chen Shen participated in 2009 excavation of the Peking Man site at Zhoukoudian. 

[From Friends of East Asian Newsletter of the Bishop White Committee; Royal Ontario Museum, Fall 2013]

Story of the Forbidden City (2)： Rise of Manchu – the beginning of Qing Dynasty

During the reign of the Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644), Clan Nvzheng began to rebel against the domination of the Ming Dynasty. Nurhaci, a powerful Manchurian chieftain who rose to prominence, embarked on a campaign to unite various Jurchen tribes over lands in Northeast China - just outside the Shanhaiguan Gate of The Great Wall.  By the early 17^th century Nurhaci was able to launch an assault on the Ming Dynasty enlarging the territory under his control.  During the wars, Nurhaci established the Eight-Flags (or Banners) military-social system, which strategically divided all Manchu families on the battle field, and which also became the basic military structure of the Qing Dynasty. In 1616 (the forty-fourth year Reign of Wangli, Emperor of Ming), Nurhaci founded the “Great Jin” 大金 government in today’s Liaoning province. After Nurbaci’s death in 1626, his son Huangtaiji succeeded in power, and renamed his political entity as “Qing”; he also renamed his Clan to “Nvzheng” “Man”, which later was called “Manzhou”, (also known as “Manchu”). 

In 1644, Li Zhicheng, a rebel leader, led an uprising that sacked the Forbidden City, and overthrew the last emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Chongzheng.  With the collapse of the Ming Dynasty, Chongzheng committed suicide in the imperial garden, where he hanged himself from a tree. Ming General Wu Sangui, who was situated at the Shanhaiguan Gate, would eventually contribute to the fall of the Ming Dynasty by forming an alliance with the Manchus, and negotiating with their troops. The Qing military ultimately stormed into the Forbidden City ending the rebel army’s occupation. The Qing Dynasty would be the last imperial dynasty to rule in Chinese history. 

The third emperor of the Qing Dynasty, and the first to reside in the Forbidden City and rule over China, was Shunzhi emperor, the son of Huangtaiji. Emperor Shuizhi’s son, Kangxi, succeeded the throne in 1662 at the age of 8, thus beginning his 61 year reign.  Kangxi, who was the fourth Qing emperor (the second resided in the Forbidden City) to rule over China (1661-1722), is considered the greatest ruler in China’s history.  Kangxi’s son, Yongzheng (16 years in power) was considered a hard-working ruler, and his grandson Qinglong ruled for 60 years plus 3 years in retirement. These rulers have been historically recognized as the three Great Emperors in Chinese history. 

The royal family of the Qing Dynasty are not Han Chinese, like those of the Ming Dynasty, but are descendants of the Manchu - Nvzheng Clan. They had their own language and writing, as well as distinct cultural traits and costumes. Manchu nobles and ruling elite adopted Han culture and teachings, and at the end of the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu language was still widely spoken. In the official documentation of the Qing Dynasty, both languages, the writings of Han and Manchu, were equally used. 

Today, Manchu is one of the five major ethnic groups (along with Mongol, Tibetan, Hui Islam, and Uyghur) in China.  Each group has retained their own language (both spoken and written). The ROM has a set of coins minted in the Qing’s official foundry, which show some characters in both Han and Manchu writing.

During the course of my research, I have come to believe that the colonial use of “Mandarin” has something to do with the spoken language during the Qing dynasty.  However, I need to find out more.